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The Himalayan Crocodile Salamander, Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson (1871)

Appearance

The Himalayan Crocodile Salamander has been described more than a century ago, but still almost nothing is known about its taxonomy. The first evaluation of this species appeared in 1995, when Tylototriton shanjing was described as a different species from T. verrucosus. Since then, little work has been done on the species. Recent Chinese mitochondrial research however concluded that T. shanjing could be a synonym of T. verrucosus (Zhang et al. 2007).

Morphologically this species is very variable. The most common seen form, as known from multiple studies in India (Darjeeling) and the neotype from China, is dark brown colored, with lighter, sometimes yellowish cranial ridges, toes, dorsal ridge, dorso-lateral warts, and underside of the tail. There are however many exceptions, often considered separate forms or variants within the species. All known variants that have appeared in recent years are displayed below. Variants are sometimes described from few individuals, making it unclear how many types exist. Many captive T. verrucosus, next to photographs from wild individuals in multiple Asian countries show large variation, but few truly aberrant variants from the neotype described in southern China.

Small Dark or Triangular head variant

A couple of this variant were acquired in Germany in 2004. Both adults were no larger than 160 mm, had a very stump snout, and a characteristic triangular head. These T. verrucosus have a lot of similarities with individuals bred by Sparreboom (1999), which were however larger. Breeding this variant proved to be extremely easy, resulting in a F2 generation in 2007. Offspring can grow larger, up to 200 mm, and the light colored parts differ from dark brown to almost yellow. Consequently, offspring is almost identical to the individuals shown in Sparreboom (1999) in general morphology, as shown in literature. The latter animals would have originated from China, as was also the case for the couple acquired in 2004.   

This variant can be recognized by its triangular head shape and extremely short, stump snout. Color and size are the same as all other T. verrucosus. Offspring is regularly offered.

* Update 2007: Offspring bred by members of the studbook also produced both individuals with yellow to orange cranial ridges, extremities, dorsal ridge, dorso-lateral warts, underside and underside of the tail, next to normal dark individuals of almost 200 mm.

Figure 1: An adult 160 mm long individual of the small dark variant. © W. Beukema

Large Dark variant

Originally thought to have originated from India, this variant can also be found in Thailand and Myanmar. Individuals are usually completely dark brown, only slightly lighter colored on the cranial ridges, toes, dorso-lateral warts, underside and underside of the tail.

Figure 2: An individual of the large dark variant.

Large Light variant

Expect for color, this variant is identical to the Large Dark one. Individuals are characterized by yellow to orange cranial ridges, extremities, dorsal ridge, dorso-lateral warts, underside and underside of the tail, with a light grey to silver body color, sometimes with bluish suffusion. Light individuals, morphologically this variant, have however been born from Large Dark variant parents. Also, light T. verrucosus are occasionally found in Nepal and India in the wild, earlier even considered different species. The status of this variant is therefore doubtful. Very large, almost orange colored individuals have appeared in pet shops, among others in Singapore, Malaysia and Japan, showing at least that some populations consist largely of this variant. Future studies on distribution and morphology in Asia, and captive breeding might shed more light on this variant. Light T. verrucosus are less regularly offered.

Figure 3: An exeptional individual of the large light variant. © T. Johnson

Shanjing variant

This variant was shown on internet in 2005, and resembled Tylototriton shanjing. These individuals were most likely light (large light) T. verrucosus, one of the first to appear in the western pet trade.

Northeastern Thai variant

This variant is strikingly different than all others due to an intense black to dark brown coloration, a quite flat head, orange colored toes clearly separated from the dark extremities and an orange stripe on the upper- and underside of the tail. The two latter characteristics do not occur in other populations of T. verrucosus. This variant is not kept in captivity and so far known isolated in the wild in one locality. For more photographs see a.o. Chan-ard et al. (1999).

Variation seems very large in Thailand, where in several cases different forms (as described above) occur in only one national park. Thai T. verrucosus are isolated in mountain ridges, and have most likely evolved separately for several millions of years.

Figure 4: T. cf. verrucosus from NE Thailand.

Distribution and habitat

Distribution range of T. verrucosus is large, but extremely patchy due to different factors as a lack of research, and the fact that the species can only be found above 1000 meters, often more, resulting in an often isolated mountain distribution. The most western localities can be found in central Nepal, eastwards to the Darjeeling region of India. Sikkim, located north of Darjeeling, most likely does not harbor populations. Occurrence has been reported several times, but was often disputed. A recent Biodiversity research in Sikkim did not locate the species (Anonymous ?). The same counts for Meghalaya, were T. verrucosus has been reported from, but does not occur (R. Dasgupta comm.). Isolated localities (as known so far) can be found in Manipur west of the border with Myanmar, and in Arunachal Pradesh. The latter most likely hosts more populations (Pawar et al. 2007), but T. verrucosus seems to be threatened in Manipur (Selim 2001).

Occurrence in Bhutan was first noted by Palden (2003). Eastwards from Bhutan first the Arunachal Pradesh population is encountered, than the Kachin (Kashin) hills of northern Myanmar. Reports from the centre of the country near Taunggyi have been confirmed by the recent Myanmar Biodiversity Project, which however did not locate any individuals in the northern Kachin hills. Thailand hosts several montane populations in national parks or wildlife Sanctuaries in the north of the country. Several are found in Chang Mai near the China-Myanmar border, but there is also a population present in the northeast of the country, south of northern Laos. Occurrence in the latter country was expected, and has been verified in 2005. China hosts only few populations in the extreme southwest of Yunnan, however occurrence in the centre of Yunnan was noted by Zhang (2001). There is mentioning of T. verrucosus in northwest Vietnam, Lai Chau (Orlov et al. 2002), but this is not verified (R. Bain comm.).   

Future distribution studies will most likely discover more populations in Arunachal Pradesh, Myanmar, and Laos.

Keeping and breeding

Again, this is different for most of the forms. Almost al the forms can be kept in an aquarium all-year round, but the large light (grey) form seems to need a terrestrial period in the summer. The juveniles of this form have to be raised completely terrestrial after metamorphoses, while the juveniles of most other forms can be kept in an aqua terrarium, or even in an aquarium. For keeping and breeding we refer to Sparreboom (1999) and Mudrack (1972).

Look here for photos of this species.

Anonymous (?): An Ecological Study on Mammals, Birds, Herpertofauna and Butterflies in Teesta Basin, Sikkim. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History Coimbatore.

Chan-ard, T., W. Grossman, A. Gumprecht & K. D. Schilz (1999): Amphibians and Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. An Illustrated Checklist. Bushmaster Publications, Würselen, Germany: 88.

Mudrack W. (1972): Ein seltener Krokodilmolch – Tylototriton verrucosus. Aquarien Magazin 10: 406-409.

Orlov N.L., R.W. Murphy, N.B. Ananjeva, S.A. Ryabov & H.T. Cuc, (2002): Herpetofauna of Vietnam, a checklist. Part I. Amphibia. Russian Journal of Herpetology 9(2): 81-104.

Palden J. (2003): New records of Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson, 1871 from Bhutan. Hamadryad 27(2): 286-287.

Pawar, S., M. S. Koo, C. Kelleya, M. F. Ahmedc, S. Chaudhurid & S. Sarakara (2007): Conservation assessment and prioritization of areas in Northeast India: Priorities for amphibians and reptiles. Biological Conservation 136: 346-361.

Selim K. (2001): Notes on Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson: a critically endangered newt from Manipur. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 98(2): 291-292.

Sparreboom, M. (1999): Haltung und Nachzucht von Tylototriton verrucosus. Elaphe 7(2): 20-24.

Zhang, G. (2001): New Discovery of Amphibious Animal, Tylototriton verrucosus in Yuanjiang County. Journal of Yuxi Teachers College 17(3):

Zhang, M., D. Rao, G. Yu & J. Yang (2007): The validity of red knobby newt (Tylototriton shanjing) species status based on Mitochondrial Cyt b gene. Zoological Research 28(4): 430-436.