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Introduction

Several factors up till now have been published about the declines of amphibians and reptiles worldwide, which were recently divided into two classes; Class I hypotheses consist of habitat change, over-exploitation and introduction of exotic species, the Class II hypotheses of more indirect factors such as global climate change, acidification, pollution and infectious diseases (Collins & Storfer 2003). Much attention in recent years has been given to Class II hypotheses, however change of habitat is still one of the most, if not the most significant threat to amphibians and reptiles worldwide, but remains understudied in most parts of the world (Gardner et al. 2007). When browsing literature, the amount of publications concerning herpetofauna conservation in Europe and North America is largest, with South America following. Few papers however deal with the herpetofauna in Southeast Asia.

Conservation is certainly not unknown in China, with as flagship species the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Conservation of herpetofauna in China is developing in the last decennium, and attention and effort has been given to the Chinhai Salamander (Echinotriton chinhaiensis) and the Giant Salamander (Andrias davidianus). Recent research showed that the stream breeding, high-elevation forest amphibians (for example Tylototriton sp.) have a much higher likelihood of being seriously threatened in China, and that salamanders in whole are more threatened than frogs and toads (Feng et al. 2006). Myers et al. (2000) showed that in fact the whole of central-south China and Southeast Asia is a biodiversity hotspot, with high need of conservation.

The economic rise of China, together with a growing market of consumers pose however large threats for herpetofauna, as can be seen with the "Asian Turtle Crisis" (Barzyk 1999). Chelonians, snakes, and the Tokay Gecko (Gekko gecko) are also commonly consumed in South China with a huge trade volume. According to trade statistics of Hong Kong, from November 1993 to October 1994 Hong Kong is recorded to have imported over 460,000 chelonians from Indonesia, over 110,000 snakes from China and over 36,000 Tokay Geckos from Thailand (Wai-Neng Lau et al. unknown). Thailand and Vietnam regularly export enormous quantities of geckos to China, resulting in the disappearance of populations (Thongsa-Ard & Thongsa-Ard 2003). Expansion of cities, and special development areas pose threats to biodiversity as whole. It must however not be forgotten that the distribution of Crocodile Salamanders comprises of far more countries. Further threats could be caused by superstition, as T. verrucosus is considered a bad omen and thus killed in Myanmar in certain areas (Gyi 1969), and also consumed in this country (Koo et al. 2003).

Figure 1: IUCN Red List Category status (following IUCN 2006) for the different Crocodile salamander species. Due to the recent description of T. vietnamensis, no status has yet been given.  

A lack of phylogenetic research among the two genera and their species also delays conservations efforts. As can be seen in figure 1, most species of Tylototriton do not qualify for a high protection status. Phylogenetic research however, certainly in the case of T. verrucosus, could discover new subspecies or even species with small ranges which are now part of this species.  

Threats

Crocodile Salamanders in the general distribution are subject to the following threats;

-          Loss of habitat
-          Over harvesting for the pet-trade
-          Over harvesting for consumption

Loss of habitat

A serious threat to these animals is habitat loss and degradation. Habitat loss from infrastructure development and regular human-induced forest fires (in Southeast Asia) are a threat to these species. Water pollution caused by agriculture and domestic detergents, and the extraction of water for irrigation are also degrading their habitat. Few Crocodile Salamander species have however been topic of research, except for T. verrucosus in Darjeeling, India. The main negative influence there is anthropogenous: exotic Cryptomeria japonica cultivation as forest trees, introduction of common carp into natural ponds and lakes, and destruction of aquatic habitats (Kuzmin et al. 1994). Although conservation measures have been made in Darjeeling, all other species are still in need of proper, practical and effective conservation.

Over-harvesting for the pet-trade

Rare in previous decennia, but enormously increased in the last ten years, collecting Tylototriton species for the pet-trade now poses a serious threat. Gascon et al. (2006) note that Tylototriton sp. are threatened by trade because of their restricted distribution, low reproductive potential and are subject to other collecting pressure. Possibly resulting in the large interest from mainly European keepers in last years of the previous century, small private exports changed to massive international imports to Europe and Japan, the United States closely followed, but at least T. kweichowensis and T. taliangensis are also exported to Argentina (Wai-Neng Lau et al. unknown). Until the moment of writing in 2007, T. verrucosus, T. shanjing, T. taliangensis, T. kweichowensis, T. asperrimus and T. wenxianensis have appeared in large numbers in the international pet trade, while T. vietnamensis and T. hainanensis, and probable undescribed variants or subspecies of these species appeared in private imports, and even in small number in the international pet trade. The presence of E. andersoni in collections and pet-trade is luckily almost completely captive bred, mainly originating from Japan and Germany. Collecting for the pet-trade is not considered a threat for E. andersoni. Crocodile salamanders are also sold as pets in Asia. T. verrucosus, recently mainly the large orange individuals are being sold in Singapore and Malaysia.

Besides the obvious threat of removing these salamanders from their habitats, a lot die during transport, often due to storing until large numbers are collected, or administration processes from several days to even weeks on airports. When transports arrive, only few individuals are healthy enough to survive (Fig 2.). Conclusively thousands of individuals of multiple species are exported, while only few survive and can be bred in captivity to stop the wild-caught individuals. Demand for Crocodile Salamanders is high and the captive breeding stock too low.

Figure 2: Recently imported adult T. kweichowensis. These animals were severely dehydrated and covered in ulcers, they all died within a few months. © W. Beukema

Figure 3: An imported T. wenxianensis. The individual is thin and has several open wounds over the dorsum and tail which are often found in imported animals. © W. Beukema

Over-harvesting for consumption

At present, it is known that in China, Myanmar and Vietnam salamanders are consumed or used in traditional medicine. Paramesotriton laoensis is occasionally consumed by locals, which might also be a threat for the Tylototriton verrucosus in Laos. Usually, individuals are captured and dried, consequently sold on food markets (Fig 4.), or sold alive (Lee et al. 2004; M. Staniszewski comm.). The use as traditional medicine is mainly a threat to T. shanjing and T. asperrimus (Feng et al. 2006) from which at least the latter is seen as a substitute for Gecko gecko. Seen the huge consumption of Geckos as described earlier, and recently the substitution-species needed because Asian species get extinct in the wild by over-harvesting (e.g. American Trachemys species instead of Asian tortoises), T. asperrimus could face a large future threat. 

Figure 4: Adult Tylototriton shanjing dried on a food-market in China, waiting to be used in traditional medicines. © M. van der Weg

None of the Tylototriton species and Echinotriton species is listed under CITES. Gascon et al. (2006) however noted that China placed Tylototriton spp. on Appendix II, with as reference the UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species database. No record can however be found at the moment of writing, except mentioning of the species in the UNEP-WCMC database without any legal comments.

Including all species of Crocodile Salamanders in CITES would promote their conservation. All species occurring in China are protected under WPL Class II, which means that the trade requires permits, apparently given regularly to traders seen the large numbers of Crocodile Salamanders in the pet trade in recent years.  

The main actions that have to be undertaken to ensure the conservation of Crocodile Salamanders are;

-          A complete phylogeographical analyses of the species to prioritize populations, species, and identify possible new subspecies and species. Resolving the taxonomy of Tylototriton verrucosus is especially important;
-          An assessment of the different ways of habitat destruction, and their direct effect on Crocodile Salamanders; which factors can be considered worse and which less worse?
-          Placement of both genera on CITES to stop the large mainly Chinese trade in currently all species.

Closing comment

Due to language differences, it is often difficult to obtain complete information about Crocodile Salamanders in general, let alone local conservation efforts. If you have comments, add-ons or questions about this conservation part, don't hesitate to send an e-mail to w.beukema[at]tylototriton.org.

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